The Return of a Goryeo Dynasty Transcription and a Set of Joseon Dynasty Buddhist Paintings—Quintessential Masterpiece of Korean Buddhist Art

- Transcription of the Zhou Version of the Avatamsaka Sutra (The Flower Garland Sutra), Vol. 22 in Gold on Indigo Paper Created as Part of a Set with the Transcription of the Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 15 in Gold on Indigo Paper (Designated a Treasure)

- The Ten Underworld Kings Painting Set Recognized as One of the Only Two Known Surviving Complete Sets from the Early-Joseon Dynasty and the First Such Example to Be Housed in South Korea

On July 8 at 11 A.M. at the National Palace Museum of Korea (located in Jongno-gu, Seoul), the Korea Heritage Service (Administrator: Choi Eung-Chon; hereafter the KHS) will join the Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation (Chair: Kim Jung-hee; hereafter the OKCHF) in unveiling to the press for the first time the Transcription of the Zhou Version of the Avatamsaka Sutra (The Flower Garland Sutra), Vol. 22 in Gold on Indigo Paper and a set of paintings of the Ten Underworld Kings, both of which have been recently retrieved from Japan.

* Transcription of the Zhou Version of the Avatamsaka Sutra (The Flower Garland Sutra), Vol. 22 in Gold on Indigo Paper: Produced in 1334 (during the Goryeo period) / transcribed in gold on indigo paper / H. 36.2 ×. W. 1,088.5 cm

* The Ten Underworld Kings Painting Set: Produced in the early Joseon period / color on silk / (overall size of each painting) H. 147 × W. 66 cm, (image size of each painting) H. 66 × W. 44 cm


The OKCHF first learned of the existence of the Transcription (sagyeong*) of the Zhou Version of the Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 22 in Gold (geumni*) on Indigo Paper, which dates to the Goryeo Dynasty, in October 2024 when its collector notified the OKCHF of an intention to sell it. With administrative support from the KHS and meticulous research on the transcription by the OKCHF, the transcription was successfully retrieved to South Korea last April following the OKCHF’s careful negotiations with the collector.

* Geumni (Gold): Pigment made by mixing gold powder with glue.

* Sagyeong (Transcription): This refers to transcribed sutras or the act of transcribing Buddhist sutras in order to distribute them or to accumulate merit.

The fundamental scripture for the Flower Garland School of Buddhism, the Avatamsaka Sutra* centers on the idea that sentient beings are all simultaneously Buddhas. The sutra was originally written in Sanskrit, an ancient language from India. There are three versions in Chinese translation: the Jin version*, the Zhou version*, and the Zhenyuan version*. The retrieved item is a handwritten copy of the contents of Volume 22 among the eighty volumes of the Zhou version of the Avatamsaka Sutra. It records the process of Vairocana Buddha*, the main deity of the Avatamsaka Sutra, ascending to the palace in Tushita Heaven*.

* The Jin version of the Avatamsaka Sutra: Comprising sixty volumes, it was translated into Chinese by Buddhabhadra (359–429) during the Eastern Jin period.

* The Zhou version of the Avatamsaka Sutra: Comprising eighty volumes, it was translated into Chinese by Siksananda (652–710) during the Tang period.

* The Zhenyuan version of the Avatamsaka Sutra: Comprising forty volumes, it was translated into Chinese by Prajna during the Tang period.

* Vairocana Buddha: The main deity for the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Buddha of light who represents the Buddhist truth itself.

* Palace in Tushita Heaven: The palace in the fourth of the six heavens within the world of desire.

The cover of the Transcription of the Zhou Version of the Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 22 in Gold on Indigo Paper features five lotus flowers in gold and silver surrounded by scroll designs. This manuscript includes a written prayer noting that Jeongdokmandara* completed the transcription of eighty-one volumes of the Avatamsaka Sutra in 1334 (the second year of the Yuantong era) to thank his parents and the emperor for their kindness. The same content is found in a written prayer in the Transcription of the Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 15 in Gold on Indigo Paper (designated a treasure) in the collection of the Coreana Cosmetics Museum. This indicates that both transcriptions are handwritten copies from the same set.

The returned transcription has an illustration (byeonsangdo*) spanning five pages. In the upper-right section of the illustration is a scene of Vairocana Buddha flanked by several Bodhisattvas (including Vajraketu Bodhisattva, who serves as a promoter of a meeting (hoeju)) preaching the fifth sermon in the palace in Tushita Heaven. The rest of the illustration shows scenes of Vairocana Buddha preaching in different locations: under a bodhi tree, in Trayastrimsha Heaven*, in Yama Heaven*, and in Tushita Heaven. The exquisite flowing line drawings in the illustration reflect the skill of a professional monk-transcriber.

* Jeongdokmandara (1290–?): A Goryeo-era Korean who went to Yuan Dynasty China during the reign of King Chungryeol and became a eunuch there.
* Byeonsangdo (literally meaning transformation tableaux): An illustration symbolically explaining the content of a sutra or its meaning to facilitate understanding.

* Trayastrimsha Heaven: The second of the six heavens within the world of desire.

* Yama Heaven: The third of the six heavens within the world of desire.

In the case of the retrieved Ten Underworld Kings painting set, the OKCHF acquired information on its submission to an auction in Japan in August 2023. With cooperation from the KHS, it made a successful bid for the set and was able to retrieve it last November.

This set of paintings depicting the Ten Underworld Kings has long received attention from academia as a notable early-Joseon example of Ten Underworld Kings paintings. It is especially significant as one of the only two known surviving complete sets of Ten Underworld Kings paintings from the early Joseon Dynasty. It was introduced in Illustrated Catalog of Old Korean Calligraphy and Painting from the Yuhyeonjae Collection by the Japanese collector Irie Takeo*. The inscription on each painting in the set bears no production date, but names of donors are included. These names suggest that this set was commissioned by commoners.

* Irie Takeo: A Japanese art dealer and collector who operated an antique art shop called Richōdō in Kyoto, Japan. In 1996, he published Illustrated Catalog of Old Korean Calligraphy and Painting from the Yuhyeonjae Collection that included 740 items from his collection.

The Ten Underworld Kings (siwang*) are shown in this set, all with imposing physiques and stern facial expressions that are meticulously rendered. The muscular jailors are vividly depicted inflicting corporal punishment on the deceased with all their strength. Designs of clouds, small chrysanthemums, and scrolls on the clothing of figures, including the ten kings, and in the backgrounds of this set are also often observed in Buddhist paintings produced during the Goryeo Dynasty (See attached photo 17).

* Siwang (The Ten Underworld Kings): Ten judges in the underworld who determine the gravity of the sins committed by humans. They are King Jingwang, King Chogang, King Songje, King Ogwan, King Yeomna, King Byeonseong, King Taesan, King Pyeongdeung, King Dosi, and King Odojeollyun.

Paintings of the Ten Underworld Kings portray the ten kings in the underworld who pass judgement on the sins that the deceased committed during their lifetimes. The recently retrieved set consists of ten hanging scrolls, each one depicting one of the ten kings and a hell scene. In this set, the upper sections of the paintings highlight scenes of judgment being officiated by the ten kings, while the lower sections illustrate, on a relatively small scale, appalling sights of the deceased being punished by jailors. Moreover, the iconography of most of the hell scenes in this set shares similarities with Ten Underworld Kings paintings from the late Goryeo Dynasty. However, the paintings depicting King Yeomna* (the fifth king) and King Byeonseong (the sixth king) in this set contain distinctive iconography.

The painting of King Yeomna (the fifth king) shows King Yeomna, the best-known among the Ten Underworld Kings, and the hell over which he presides. In this retrieved set, King Yeomna is portrayed wearing a coronet (myeollyugwan*), inside which is an image of the Big Dipper. This inclusion of the Big Dipper differentiates the set from other paintings in which King Yeomna has a design of the sun and moon or the Vajracchedika prajnaparamita Sutra* (The Diamond Sutra) depicted inside his coronet. This iconography of King Yeomna with the Big Dipper, the constellation believed in folk religion to control lifespan, appears to be intended to emphasize his authority as one of the ten kings who oversees the death of sentient beings (See the attached photo 18).

* King Yeomna: The fifth among the Ten Underworld Kings, he judges the souls of the deceased based on their sins using a karma mirror that reflects the deeds they committed during their lifetimes.

* Myeollyugwan (coronet): This type of coronet consists of a rectangular board mounted on a fitted cap with beaded strings dangling from the front and back.

* Vajracchedika prajnaparamita Sutra (The Diamond Sutra): The scripture that conveys the Buddha’s preaching on the life of wisdom he attained through enlightenment.

The painting of King Byeonseong (the sixth king) in this set depicts the transformation of the boiling water of Boiling Cauldron Hell (hwaktang jiok*) into a lotus pond, in which the deceased are reborn in lotus flowers (yeonhwa hwasaeng*), within the Pure Land. This is the first known inclusion of beings being born in lotus blossoms within a hell scene. It is interpreted as the conveyance of a hopeful message that even souls already in hell can be reborn in a lotus pond (the Pure Land) if they atone for their sins and sincerely repent (See the attached photo 19).

* Hwaktang jiok (Boiling Cauldron Hell): The hell where sinners are punished by being simmered in a cauldron of boiling molten iron.

* Yeonhwa hwasaeng (Beings born in lotus blossoms): The Buddhist idea of all beings being born mysteriously within lotus blossoms in the Pure Land.

Despite the passage of centuries since their creation, the Transcription of the Zhou Version of the Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 22 in Gold on Indigo Paper and the Ten Underworld Kings painting set are preserved in good condition. They are expected to be used for both academic research and exhibition in the future.

Choi Eung-Chon, the Administrator of the KHS, stated that “It is deeply meaningful to unveil this invaluable Korean cultural heritage retrieved from Japan at a time when the eightieth anniversary of Korea’s liberation is just a month away. The retrieved transcription and Ten Underworld Kings painting set are embodiments of the splendid Buddhist art from the Goryeo Dynasty and the early Joseon Dynasty, respectively. The KHS will offer regular opportunities for the general public to view them in person and appreciate their significance.”

The KHS and the OKCHF will continue to actively seek out, return, conserve, and utilize Korean cultural heritage in other countries by strengthening their local networks overseas as a means to help restore Korea’s historical and cultural legacy. The retrieval was undertaken with support from the National Lottery Fund.

Division: International Cooperation Division, Heritage Promotion Bureau / Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation
Contact persons: Kim Kyunghee (042-481-4866)
Mun Gyeonggyu (042-481-4867)
Kang Hae Seung (02-6902-0732)
Kim Seon Hui (02-6902-0771)

Attachment. Photos of the Retrieved Cultural Heritage Items